Background
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Formed from wood pulp or plant fiber, paper is chiefly used for written communication. The earliest paper was papyrus, made from reeds by the ancient Egyptians. Paper was made by the Chinese in the second century, probably by a Chinese court official named Cai Lun. His paper was made from such things as tree bark and old fish netting. Recognized almost immediately as a valuable secret, it was 500 years before the Japanese acquired knowledge of the method. Papermaking was known in the Islamic world from the end of the eighth century A.D.
Knowledge of papermaking eventually moved westward, and the first European paper mill was built at Jativa, in the province of Valencia, Spain, in about 1150. By the end of the 15th century, paper mills existed in Italy, France, Germany, and England, and by the end of the 16th century, paper was being made throughout Europe.
Paper, whether produced in the modern factory or by the most careful, delicate hand methods, is made up of connected fibers. The fibers can come from a number of sources including cloth rags, cellulose fibers from plants, and, most notably, trees. The use of cloth in the process has always produced high-quality paper. Today, a large proportion of cotton and linen fibers in the mix create many excellent papers for special uses, from wedding invitation paper stock to special paper for pen and ink drawings.
The earliest paper was papyrus, made from reeds by the ancient Egyptians. The remaining material comes from wood fiber from sawmills, recycled. Best 100 DIY home decor projects out of recycled materials like plastic bottles, pallet wood, mason jars and old furniture recycling ideas.
The method of making paper is essentially a simple one—mix up vegetable fibers, and cook them in hot water until the fibers are soft but not dissolved. The hot water also contains a base chemical such as lye, which softens the fibers as they are cooking. Then, pass a screen-like material through the mixture, let the water drip off and/or evaporate, and then squeeze or blot out additional water. A layer of paper is left behind. Essential to the process are the fibers, which are never totally destroyed, and, when mixed and softened, form an interlaced pattern within the paper itself. Modern papermaking methods, although significantly more complicated than the older ways, are developmental improvements rather than entirely new methods of making paper.
![3d Plants Made From Recycled Materials 3d Plants Made From Recycled Materials](/uploads/1/1/7/9/117971421/126862142.jpeg)
Raw Materials
The paragraph about recycled plastic made me think about how I recently read an article about a 3D printed house. I hope this trend is around for a while. It could do our planet some good. Find Recycling Locations, Green Living Tips and More. How To Decorate Your Garden With Recycled Materials. If you are passionate about decoration and you are a lover of nature, how about combining these two trends in the garden of your.
Probably half of the fiber used for paper today comes from wood that has been purposely harvested. The remaining material comes from wood fiber from sawmills, recycled newspaper, some vegetable matter, and recycled cloth. Coniferous trees, such as spruce and fir, used to be preferred for papermaking because the cellulose fibers in the pulp of these species are longer, therefore making for stronger paper. These trees are called 'softwood' by the paper industry. Deciduous trees (leafy trees such as poplar and elm) are called 'hardwood.' Because of increasing demand for paper, and improvements in pulp processing technology, almost any species of tree can now be harvested for paper.
Some plants other than trees are suitable for paper-making. In areas without significant forests, bamboo has been used for paper pulp, as has straw and sugarcane. Flax,
Most paper is made by a mechanical or chemical process.
hemp, and jute fibers are commonly used for textiles and rope making, but they can also be used for paper. Some high-grade cigarette ![3d Plants Made From Recycled Materials 3d Plants Made From Recycled Materials](/uploads/1/1/7/9/117971421/116905038.jpg)
Cotton and linen rags are used in fine-grade papers such as letterhead and resume paper, and for bank notes and security certificates. The rags are usually cuttings and waste from textile and garment mills. The rags must be cut and cleaned, boiled, and beaten before they can be used by the paper mill.
Other materials used in paper manufacture include bleaches and dyes, fillers such as chalk, clay, or titanium oxide, and sizings such as rosin, gum, and starch.
The Manufacturing
Process
Making pulp
- 1 Several processes are commonly used to convert logs to wood pulp. In the mechanical process, logs are first tumbled in drums to remove the bark. The logs are then sent to grinders, which break the wood down into pulp by pressing it between huge revolving slabs. The pulp is filtered to remove foreign objects. In the chemical process, wood chips from de-barked logs are cooked in a chemical solution. This is done in huge vats called digesters. The chips are fed into the digester, and then boiled at high pressure in a solution of sodium hydroxide and sodium sulfide. The chips dissolve into pulp in the solution. Next the pulp is sent through filters. Bleach may be added at this stage, or colorings. The pulp is sent to the paper plant.
Beating
- 2 The pulp is next put through a pounding and squeezing process called, appropriately enough, beating. Inside a large tub, the pulp is subjected to the effect of machine beaters. At this point, various filler materials can be added such as chalks, clays, or chemicals such as titanium oxide. These additives will influence the opacity and other qualities of the final product. Sizings are also added at this point. Sizing affects the way the paper will react with various inks. Without any sizing at all, a paper will be too absorbent for most uses except as a desk blotter. A sizing such as starch makes the paper resistant to water-based ink (inks actually sit on top of a sheet of paper, rather than sinking in). A variety of sizings, generally rosins and gums, is available depending on the eventual use of the paper. Paper that will receive a printed design, such as gift wrapping, requires a particular formula of sizing that will make the paper accept the printing properly.
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Pulp to paper
- 3 In order to finally turn the pulp into paper, the pulp is fed or pumped into giant, automated machines. One common type is called the Fourdrinier machine, which was invented in England in 1807. Pulp is fed into the Fourdrinier machine on a moving belt of fine mesh screening. The pulp is squeezed through a series of rollers, while suction devices below the belt drain off water. If the paper is to receive a water-mark, a device called a dandy moves across the sheet of pulp and presses a design into it. The paper then moves onto the press section of the machine, where it is pressed between rollers of wool felt. The paper then passes over a series of steam-heated cylinders to remove the remaining water. A large machine may have from 40 to 70 drying cylinders.
Finishing
- 4 Finally, the dried paper is wound onto large reels, where it will be further processed depending on its ultimate use. Paper is smoothed and compacted further by passing through metal rollers called calendars. A particular finish, whether soft and dull or hard and shiny, can be imparted by the calendars. The paper may be further finished by passing through a vat of sizing material. It may also receive a coating, which is either brushed on or rolled on. Coating adds chemicals or pigments to the paper's surface, supplementing the sizings and fillers from earlier in the process. Fine clay is often used as a coating. The paper may next be supercalendered, that is, run through extremely smooth calendar rollers, for a final time. Then the paper is cut to the desired size.
Environmental Concerns
The number of trees and other vegetation cut down in order to make paper is enormous. Paper companies insist that they plant as many new trees as they cut down. Environmentalists contend that the new growth trees, so much younger and smaller than what was removed, cannot replace the value of older trees. Efforts to recycle used paper (especially newspapers) have been effective in at least partially mitigating the need for destruction of woodlands, and recycled paper is now an important ingredient in many types of paper production.
The chemicals used in paper manufacture, including dyes, inks, bleach, and sizing, can also be harmful to the environment when they are released into water supplies and nearby land after use. The industry has, sometimes with government prompting, cleared up a large amount of pollution, and federal requirements now demand pollutionfree paper production. The cost of such clean-up efforts is passed on to the consumer.
Where To Learn More
Books
Biermann, Christopher J. Essentials of Pulping & Papermaking. Academic Press, 1993.
Bell, Lilian A. Plant Fibers for Papermaking. Liliaceae Press, 1992.
Ferguson, Kelly, ed. New Trends and Developments in Papermaking. Miller Freeman, Inc., 1994.
Munsell, Joel. Chronology and Process of Papermaking, 1876-1990. Albert Saifer Publisher, 1992.
Periodicals
deGrassi, Jennifer. 'Primitive Papermaking.' Schools Arts, February 1981, pp. 32-33.
Kleiner, Art. 'Making Paper.' Co-Evolution Quarterly, Winter 1980, p. 138.
Lamb, Lynette. 'Tree-Free Paper.' Utne Reader, March-April 1994, p. 40.
Saddington, Marrianne. 'How to Make Homemade Paper.' Mother Earth News, December-January 1993, p. 30+.
Sessions, Larry. 'Making Paper.' Family Explorer, October 1994.
Recycling is the process of returning materials to their raw components and then using these again to supplement or replace new materials in the manufacture of a new product. Recycling allows us to conserve our precious natural resources and energy, contributes to a reduction in pollution and eliminates the negative environmental impact of alternative waste disposal (удаление отходов,the collection, processing, and recycling or deposition of the waste materials) methods such as landfilling (закапывание отходов.burying in a landfill) and incineration. (сжигание отходов,waste destruction in a furnace) It helps to preserve treasured wildlife habitats (среда обитания,the natural home or environment of an animal, plant, or other organism) and vital ecosystems.
A brief history of recycling
The virtue of recycling has been appreciated for centuries. For thousands of years metal items have been recycled by melting and reforming them into new weapons or tools. During the industrial revolution, recyclers began to form businesses and later trade associations, dealing in the collection, trade and processing of metals and paper. In the 1930s many people survived the Great Depression by peddling (торговать, разменивать) scraps of metal, rags and other items. In those days reuse and recycling were often economic necessities. Recycling also played an important role during the Second World War, when scrap metal (металлический лом) was turned into weapons.
As industrial societies began to produce ever-growing quantities of garbage, recycling took on a new meaning. Rather than recycling materials for purely economic reasons, communities began to think about how to reduce the waste flow to landfills and incinerators. Around 1970 the environmental movement sparked the creation of the first curbside collection schemes, though it was another 20 years before such programmes really took off.
Steps to Recycling Materials
Recycling includes three steps which create a continuous loop (петля, виток) represented by the familiar recycling symbol.
Step 1: Collection
A number of different methods have been implemented to collect recyclates (вторичное сырье,material that is recyclable) from the general waste stream. They include 'drop-off centers,' 'buy-back centers (пункт скупки утильсырья)' and 'curbside collection.'
Recycling drop-off-centers (места временного хранения отходов,method of collecting recyclable or compostible materials in which materials are taken by individuals to collection sites and deposited into designated containers) are situated at specific locations around a community (сообщество, населенный пункт, a group of people living in the same place) and supplied with large containers, usually “igloos”, trailers or large waste bins, clearly marked for the kind of materials they accept. Such sites can be run by a public body, privately, or by some combination of the two. The location for a drop-off center must be convenient for the public. The less people have to go out of their way to recycle, the more successful the program will be.
A buy-back center (пункт скупки утильсырья, facility where individuals bring recyclables in exchange for payment) is a place where the public can take recyclables and be paid for them. A buy-back center will probably require all recyclables to be separated and insist that all contaminants be removed.
Curbside collection (сбор вторсырья из мусорных баков у дороги,program where recyclable materials are collected at the curb, often from special containers, to be taken to various processing facilities) of recyclable materials is the most effective method of residential recycling because it is the most convenient for consumers. In a typical curbside program recyclables are picked up just like the regular household garbage (хозяйственный мусор): in their own containers at the curb. Residents typically separate their solid waste (твердые отходы, any garbage, refuse or sludge from anyindustrial, commercial, mining or community activities) into aluminum, glass, plastic and paper and have a container for each at the curb.
It should be mentioned though that the trend now is toward the so-called “single stream” collection (recycling refers to a system in which all paper fibers, plastics, metals, and other containers are mixed in acollection truck, instead of being sorted). In fact, the switch towards single-stream collection is being driven by new technologies that can identify and sort the various materials with little or no human intervention. Single-stream collection makes it more convenient for householders to recycle, and means that more materials are diverted (переадресован, направлен к-л) from the waste stream.
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Step 2: Manufacturing
After collection recyclables are sent to a recovery facility (средство спасения) to be sorted, cleaned, and processed (обработанный, refined) into materials that can be used in manufacturing.
Here’s how it works.
The process begins when a truck arrives and dumps its load of recyclables at one end of the building. The materials are then piled on to large conveyer belts (конвейерные ленты, a continuous moving band of fabric, rubber, or metal used for moving objects from one place to another) that transport them to a manual sorting station (ручная сортировочная станция). There, workers sift through everything, taking out plastic bags, large pieces of cardboard and other items that could damage or obstruct (препятствовать) the sorting machines. Corrugated cardboard (рифленый картон) is separated from mixed paper, both of which are then baled (укладывать в тюки) and sold. Plastic bottles and cartons are plucked out (выковыривать, вытаскивать) by hand.
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Next, a magnet pulls out any ferrous metals (черные металлы), typically tin-plated or steel cans, while the non-ferrous metals, mostly aluminium cans, are ejected (выброшенный)by eddy current (вихревое движение).
Finally, the glass is separated by hand into clear, brown, amber and green glass. For each load, the entire sorting process from start to finish takes about an hour.
For many materials the process of turning them back into useful raw materials is straightforward (простой, uncomplicated and easy to do or understand): metals are shredded into pieces, paper is reduced to pulp (бесформенная масса, кашица, a soft, wet, shapeless mass of material) and glass is crushed into cullet (стеклобой, recycled broken or waste glass used in glassmaking). Metals and glass can be remelted almost indefinitely without any loss in quality, while paper can be recycled up to six times. (As it goes through the process, its fibres get shorter and the quality deteriorates (ухудшаться).)
Plastics, which are made from fossil fuels (ископаемое топливо, a natural fuel such as coal or gas), are somewhat different. Although they have many useful properties—they are flexible, lightweight and can be shaped into any form—there are many different types, most of which need to be processed separately. Even so, plastics are being used more and more, not just for packaging, but also in consumer goods such as cars, televisions and personal computers.
Step 3: Purchasing
By buying new products made from recycled materials you help close the recycling loop. Here are some of the terms used:
Recycled-content product (). This means the product was manufactured with recycled materials, either collected from a recycling program or from waste recovered during the normal manufacturing process. Sometimes the label will tell you how much of the content was from recycled materials.
Postconsumer content (). This is very similar to recycled content, but the material comes only from recyclables collected from consumers or businesses through a recycling program.
Recyclable product (). These are products that can be collected, processed and manufactured into new products after they have been used.
The rhetoric () surrounding the two current alternatives to recycling – landfills and incinerators – is filled with contradictions. Proponents of both of these disposal methods proclaim their safety and efficiency (эффективность, the state or quality of being efficient), while environmental groups and independent researchers regularly dispute such claims (опаривать такие заявления, argue about (something); discuss heatedly). Amid all this confusion recycling seems to be an ideal choice.
Even so, most curbside recycling (сбор отходов при помощи контейнеров, установленных на обочинах дорог) programmes are not financially self-sustaining. The cost of collecting, transporting and sorting materials generally exceeds the revenues generated by selling the recyclables, and is also greater than the disposal costs (стимость утилизации). Much recyclable material can be processed locally, but ever more is being shipped to developing nations, especially China. The country has a large appetite for raw materials and that includes scrap metals (металлолом, any metal material discarded from manufacturing operations and usually suitable for reprocessing), waste paper (макулатура, paper discarded after use) and plastics, all of which can be cheaper than virgin materials. In most cases, these waste materials are recycled into consumer goods(потребительские товары) or packaging and returned to Europe and America via container ships.
Fun Recycling Facts
• An aluminum can that is thrown away will still be a can 500 years from now.
• Recycling one aluminum can save enough energy to listen to a full album on your iPod. Recycling 100 cans could light your bedroom for two whole weeks.
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• Your ID card will last approximately 450-650 years.
• One-third of the water used in most homes is flushed down the toilet.
• If you had a 15-year-old tree and made it into paper grocery bags, you'd get about 700 of them. A supermarket could use all of them in under an hour!
2. Paraphrase the underlined words and word-combinations and translate them into Russian.
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3. Draw a scheme of a recycling process based on the text. Then using your partner’s scheme speak about the process.
4. Work in pairs and discuss the pros and cons of recycling. Elaborate on the following arguments if you wish.
5 Reasons Why People Do Not Recycle | 5 Reasons Why People Should Recycle |
1. “Recycling is inconvenient.” This seems to be the number one reason why people don’t recycle – they don’t want to put in the extra effort. Some places have no pick-up. Some people say that they just can’t be bothered. 2. “I do not have enough space in my home to recycle.” The lack of space is an issue for many. People don’t want to see garbage and with little storage space for recycling bins, the trash is an eyesore. 3. “If they paid me, I’d recycle.” Some countries fine people for not recycling. Some regions pay for just bottle recycling (we know that works). Some areas have no penalties or incentives (побудительная причина) for recycling. 4. “Recycling doesn’t make a difference. So why do it?” Misinformation about overflowing landfills, depleted resources (исчерпанные ресурсы) and climate change has convinced some people that recycling doesn’t make a difference. 5. “It is just to hard to do.” Since there are so many facets to recycling – bottle, plastic and paper, it’s hard to decipher which kinds go where. | 1. “Recycling saves energy.” By using recycled materials we save on energy consumption, which keeps production costs down. 2. “Recycling reduces landfills.” Recycling reduces the need for more landfills. No one wants to live next to a landfill. 3. “Recycling preserves our resources and protects wildlife.” By recycling, we reduce the need to destroy habitats for animals. Paper recycling alone saves millions of trees. 4. “Recycling is good for the economy.” Recycling and purchasing recycled products creates a greater demand for more recycled goods. 5. “Recycling helps our climate problems.” Recycling produces considerably less carbon, which reduces the amount of unhealthy greenhouse gas emissions. |
Text 2
1. Read the title of the text. What do you think it’s going to be about? What is the author’s attitude to the topic? Now read the whole text. Were your predictions correct?